How to study science effectively: methods with good evidence behind them

Why familiar methods can mislead

Rereading and highlighting are popular because they feel easy and produce a sense of familiarity. Familiarity is not the same as being able to recall and use an idea in an exam, though. A widely cited 2013 review by John Dunlosky and colleagues examined ten common study techniques and rated rereading, highlighting and summarising as having low utility: the evidence for their benefit was limited or inconsistent across learners and materials.

The same review rated two techniques as high utility: practice testing (retrieval practice) and distributed practice (spacing). Several others, including interleaved practice and self-explanation, were rated moderate. A 2007 practice guide from the US Institute of Education Sciences (IES), written by a panel of learning researchers, made overlapping recommendations: space learning over time, use quizzing to promote learning, mix worked examples with problem-solving, and combine graphics with verbal descriptions.

None of this means a technique works the same for everyone or in every topic. Most of the research was done with particular materials and age groups, and effects vary. But these methods are a reasonable default for most science students, and they are easy to try.

1. Retrieval practice: test yourself, don't reread

Retrieval practice means bringing information back to mind without looking: answering questions, writing out what you remember, or explaining a process from memory. The effort of recalling seems to strengthen memory more than seeing the material again.

How to use it in science

• Biology: Close the book and sketch the stages of mitosis, labelling what happens at each. Then check and correct in a different colour.
• Chemistry: Write out the steps for calculating moles from mass without notes, then try a fresh question.
• Physics: List the equations for a topic from memory, with units, before starting a problem set. Then explain in words what each one means.

Practical tips

• Turn headings in your notes into questions ("What affects the rate of a reaction?") and answer them aloud or in writing.
• Use past-paper questions early in the course, not only at the end.
• Flashcards work if you genuinely try to recall before flipping. Glancing at both sides is just rereading.
• Getting answers wrong is part of the process. Check, correct and come back to them later.

2. Spacing: little and often beats one long session

Distributed or spaced practice means returning to the same material several times with gaps in between, rather than cramming it into one session. The evidence for spacing is among the most consistent in learning research, although the best gap length depends on how long you need to remember something.

How to use it in science

• After learning a topic in class, revisit it briefly a few days later, then a week or two later, then again before the end of term.
• Build a simple rotation: each study session includes a few retrieval questions from older topics, not just this week's work.
• Keep a list of topics with the date you last tested yourself on each. Prioritise the oldest and the weakest.

A useful rule of thumb: if revision feels very easy, the gap may be too short. A bit of struggle to remember is a sign the practice is doing work.

3. Interleaving: mix problem types

Interleaving means mixing different kinds of problems in one practice session, rather than doing ten of the same type in a row (blocked practice). Blocked practice makes the method obvious; interleaving forces you to work out which approach a question needs, which is what exams demand.

Dunlosky's review rated interleaving as moderate utility, noting that much of the evidence comes from mathematics and category learning. It applies most naturally to the quantitative and classification parts of science.

How to use it in science

• Physics: Once you've learned several mechanics topics, practise a mixed set: a kinematics question, then a momentum question, then an energy question. Before solving, write down which principle applies and why.
• Chemistry: Mix calculation types (moles, concentration, gas volumes, percentage yield) so you practise recognising each.
• Biology: Mix questions on similar processes that are easily confused, such as mitosis and meiosis, or diffusion, osmosis and active transport.

Interleaving often feels harder and slower at first. That is expected. Introduce it once you have a basic grasp of each topic on its own.

4. Worked examples: study solutions before solving alone

When a topic is new, studying a fully worked solution and then attempting a similar problem tends to be more efficient than struggling with problems unaided. The IES guide recommends alternating worked examples with problems to solve. As skill grows, the benefit of worked examples tends to fade, and independent problem-solving becomes more useful.

How to use it in science

1. Read a worked example slowly. For each step, ask yourself why it was done. This is close to what researchers call self-explanation.
2. Cover the solution and try to reproduce it.
3. Attempt a similar problem with different numbers or context.
4. Gradually move to problems with no example nearby.

This works especially well for physics calculations, chemistry stoichiometry and biology data-analysis questions such as calculating magnification or interpreting a graph.

A common trap

Watching a teacher, tutor or video solve problems is a form of worked example, but only if you then try one yourself. Passive watching on its own feels like learning but often doesn't transfer to the exam.

5. Dual coding: words and pictures together

Dual coding means combining verbal information with visual representations: diagrams, flowcharts, graphs and timelines. The IES guide recommends combining graphics with verbal descriptions. Researchers such as Weinstein, Madan and Sumeracki include dual coding among six learning strategies with good support from cognitive science, while noting that the visuals need to be relevant rather than decorative.

How to use it in science

• Biology: Draw the cycle (the carbon cycle, the cardiac cycle, the menstrual cycle) and annotate each arrow with what happens and why.
• Chemistry: Draw particle diagrams alongside equations, or energy profile diagrams for exothermic and endothermic reactions.
• Physics: Draw a free-body diagram before every forces problem, and sketch the graph shape before calculating from it.

Then use the diagram for retrieval: redraw it from memory and compare it with the original.

Putting it together: a sample weekly routine

For a student with science lessons several times a week, an evidence-informed routine might look like this:

Adjust the times to fit. The point is regular, short, effortful sessions rather than occasional long ones.

Common questions

Should I stop making notes?

No. Notes are useful as a reference. Treat them as something to test yourself against rather than something to reread.

What about learning styles?

Matching teaching to a supposed "visual" or "auditory" learning style is not well supported by evidence: a 2008 review by Harold Pashler and colleagues found little rigorous support for it. Dual coding is different: it suggests that combining words and visuals helps most learners.

How do I know if it's working?

Test yourself on a topic you studied a few weeks ago. If you can recall and apply it without notes, your methods are working.

Where a tutor can help

These methods are simple to describe but harder to keep up alone. Students often aren't sure which questions to test themselves with, or they practise a method incorrectly without realising it. In a one-to-one lesson, a tutor can ask retrieval questions, choose well-mixed problem sets, model a worked example and then hand over the next one, and spot misunderstandings as they happen.

eMath Tutor offers live, one-to-one online lessons in physics, chemistry, biology and general science. If you'd like to see how a tutor would apply these ideas to your course, you can request a free trial lesson.